“
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2010; 20: 179–185 Objectives.  This study examined caries level, amount of calculus, and oral microbial environment in gastrostomy tube (GT)-fed children compared with healthy children and children with disabilities orally fed (PO). Study design.  The study group Dabrafenib datasheet consisted of 12 GT-fed children and the two control groups consisted of 16 children with disabilities orally fed and 17 healthy children. DMF-T/dmf-t index, calculus index, Mutans Streptococci (MS), Lactobacilli (LB) levels and salivary buffer capacity were

examined. Results.  DMF-T/dmf-t index was significantly lower in the tube-fed group. Calculus index was highest in the tube-fed group. MS and LB levels were the lowest in the tube-fed children. Correlation was found between MS and DMF-T/dmf-t. Conclusions.  Tube-fed children demonstrated significantly higher calculus levels and less caries, MS, and LB levels then healthy

children or children with disabilities eating PO. “
“Laboratory studies show diverse behaviour of different brands of glass–ionomer cements (GIC). This study investigated the clinical performance [survival rate (SR)] of three GIC brands applied to proximal atraumatic restorative treatment (ART) restorations. Additionally, the SR of the tooth was evaluated. Proximal cavities of 262 primary molars were restored. The patients had been randomly selleckchem allocated to two operators and three GIC brands: Fuji IX, Hi-Dense, and Maxxion R. Restorations were evaluated after 1, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, and 36 months. Thymidine kinase Failed restorations were, if possible, repaired or replaced. Linear regression analyses were used to evaluate the effect of GIC brand, operator, and surface of restoration. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis and log-rank test were performed for both restoration survival and tooth survival (α = 5%). After 3 years, 82.4% of the restorations were evaluated. The SR of the restorations was 24.4%, and there

was no difference among GIC brands (log-rank test, P = 0.6). In the first 18 months, a significant operator effect and significantly higher failures in distal surfaces were found. The SR of the tooth was 81.7%. The SR of proximal ART restorations was relatively low when compared with the SR of the tooth. There are no differences in the performance among the GIC brands used in the study. “
“Evidence on caries risk assessment (CRA) and recall intervals are limited in terms of caries prevention. To assess the effectiveness of a program on the incidence and regression of initial caries lesions. A total of 296 children aged 1–12 years old were assessed by calibrated examiners for Gingival Bleeding Index, Dental Plaque Index, dmf-t/DMF-T Index, initial caries lesions, and caries lesion activity. Children were classified as low, moderate, and high caries risk with different recall interval visits. Statistical analysis included Cox regression and Kaplan–Meier curves.

, 2008). Chitin degradation via released chitinases has been well described for marine bacteria of the genera Vibrio and Pseudoalteromonas (Keyhani & Roseman, 1999; Baty et al., 2000; Meibom et al., 2004) and for freshwater bacteria of the genus Aeromonas (Janda, 1985; von Graevenitz, 1987; Lan et al., 2008). On the contrary, chitin degradation via cell-associated chitinases is largely unexplored. It has been described that many chitinolytic bacteria of the Cytophaga/Flavobacterium group of Ruxolitinib the Bacteroidetes, which are abundant inhabitants of marine and freshwater environments and contribute significantly to polymer

degradation in the open water (Cottrell & Kirchman, 2000; Kirchman, 2002; Lemarchand et al., 2006; Alonso et al., 2007; Beier & Bertilsson, 2011), do not release chitinases (Sundarraj & Bhat, 1972; Gooday, 1990). Recent genome analyses of several Bacteroidetes such as Flavobacterium johnsoniae suggest that chitin degradation in this group of bacteria proceeds via surface-bound chitinolytic enzymes that are very similar MAPK inhibitor to the well-described starch utilization system (sus) of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (Bauer et al., 2006; Xie et al., 2007; Martens et al., 2009; McBride et al., 2009).

The goal of our study was to investigate the interactions of bacteria with contrasting mechanisms for chitin degradation to identify the strategies they apply for overcoming their respective disadvantages. As this is difficult to study within natural communities, we set up a reductionistic laboratory model system with a defined co-culture

of aquatic bacteria, Aeromonas hydrophila strain AH-1N and Flavobacterium sp. strain 4D9. Previously, we reported that strains of Aeromonas and of the Cytophaga/Flavobacterium group were dominant in the same enrichment cultures, in which the microbial communities of the littoral zone of the oligotrophic PRKACG Lake Constance had been supplied with artificial organic particles as substrate (Styp von Rekowski et al., 2008). Thus, members of these bacterial groups coexist in the same environment. As described above for polymers in general, naturally occurring chitin is usually linked to other organic components such as proteins or glucans (Gooday, 1990). To account for this in our study, we embedded chitin into agarose beads. Aeromonas hydrophila strain AH-1N (Lynch et al., 2002) and Flavobacterium sp. strain 4D9, a Lake Constance isolate formerly called Cytophaga sp. strain 4D9 (Styp von Rekowski et al., 2008; GenBank accession number EF395377), were cultivated in the mineral medium B (Jagmann et al., 2010). When acetate (5 mM) and tryptone (0.1%) were used as carbon and energy sources, 5 mM NH4Cl was present in the medium. When suspended chitin [0.5% (w/v)], embedded chitin (two chitin-containing agarose beads per test tube), or GlcNAc (5 mM) served as carbon, energy, and nitrogen source, ammonium was omitted from the medium. Both strains were maintained on solid (1.

Biofilm EPS can contain polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids (Flemming & Wingender, 2002), but few specific reports exist on the EPS matrix of P. putida biofilms. As a first approach to address the increased biofilm formation by the TOL-carrying strain, we attempted to extract EPS from biofilm-containing stagnant liquid cultures by a standard protocol using a cation-exchange resin (Frølund et al., 1996). However, it was not possible to extract the EPS component that caused the higher viscosity: both extracts had similar low viscosities [KT2440: 1.3 cSt BAY 80-6946 chemical structure vs. KT2440 (TOL) 1.8 cSt], and extractable carbohydrate and nucleic acid contents were similar for both strains (Table 3).

This suggested that a major part of the EPS was not extractable and remained cell associated. Further attempts to increase Protease Inhibitor Library extraction intensities rapidly caused cell lysis, as observed by rRNA release in extracts (results not shown). Consequently, we attempted to analyze EPS components directly in the biofilm-containing liquid cultures. Total carbohydrate contents were about double as high as in the extracts, but no striking differences between the two strains were found. Total DNA contents of the two cultures were, however, clearly different: The TOL-carrying strain contained twice the amount of total DNA, as compared with the respective plasmid-free cultures, as similar cellular biomass contents measured as particulate protein. The next approach

involved direct visualization by microscopy. To check for the differential presence of eDNA in liquid–solid interface biofilms, 7-day-old flow cell biofilms of the TOL-free or TOL-carrying KT2440 were stained with propidium iodide (PI). Diffuse PI fluorescence

was colocalized with the larger (presumably older) microcolonies formed by the TOL-carrying strain, indicating that eDNA was a major Sulfite dehydrogenase constituent (Fig. 1). The plasmid-free strains, again, did not form thick biofilms, and eDNA was not observed. Using similar approaches, eDNA has been observed in various pure-culture biofilms (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, environmental isolate) (Whitchurch et al., 2002; Bockelmann et al., 2006; Thomas et al., 2009; Vilain et al., 2009), and eDNA is, therefore, increasingly being considered a potential core element of the biofilm matrix. eDNA has similarly been observed in flocs and unsaturated biofilms of environmental Pseudomonas (Palmgren & Nielsen, 1996; Steinberger & Holden, 2005). In contrast to our observations, this eDNA remained easily extractable by chemical or thermal treatment methods isolates (Palmgren & Nielsen, 1996; Steinberger & Holden, 2005). Ultimately, eDNA was successfully extracted from TOL-free and TOL-carrying KT2440 cultures by enzymatic treatment using cellulase and proteinase K followed by centrifugation (Wu & Xi, 2009), without concurrent increase in cell lysis as ascertained using live/dead cell staining.

4a, lane 4), barely delivered in the supernatant and was in an insoluble form in the membrane fractions. When a set of eight amino acid residues was added in frame at the carboxy-terminal end of PsaA without PsaBC (pYA4796), PsaA was not detected (data not shown). These results indicate that PsaB and PsaC are essential for the processing and translocation of PsaA from the cytoplasm to the cell surface in Salmonella. Deletion of the first 26 amino acids of PsaA amino-terminal region (pYA3711) prevented the translocation of PsaA from the cytoplasm to the cell surface. The unprocessed PsaA form was not observed and the mature 15-kDa protein was decreased in the total extract,

find more cytoplasm and membrane fractions (Fig. 4b, lane 1). Deletion of the last nine amino acids of PsaA at the carboxy-terminal region (pYA4800), from threonine at position 155 to phenylalanine at position 163, drastically decreased its expression and was barely detectable as a ∼13.5-kDa product in supernatant and membrane fraction (Fig. 4a, lane 9). These results indicate that the amino-terminal region is necessary to secrete PsaA and that the carboxy-terminal region is required for its stability. Deletion of the PsaA A31 (pYA4374) or S32 (pYA4375),

which forms part of the SPase-I cleavage site, did not affect the synthesis or secretion of PsaA in any subcellular fraction (Fig. 4b, lanes 7 and 8), check details but with the ΔA31–ΔS32 double deletion (pYA4376), the unprocessed 18-kDa product was not detected in the total extract and barely observed in the membrane fraction (Fig. 4b, lane 9). In contrast, when the amino acids involved in the PsaA predicted SPase-II cleavage site,

cysteine at position 26 changed to valine (pYA3708) and the glycine at position 27 replaced by serine (pYA3709), the PsaA synthesis was not affected (Fig. 4b, lanes 2 and 5). To determine whether the cysteine residues at positions 10 and 26 play stiripentol a role in the PsaA biogenesis and stability, the cysteine10 (pYA3707) was replaced with valine and either cysteine was changed to valine (pYA3706). None of these mutations affected PsaA synthesis or secretion (Fig. 4b, lanes 4 and 6). We observed the same expression profile when the RASV strain containing each of the previously described plasmids was grown with either 0.2% or 0.02% arabinose in the culture medium (data not shown). The amino acid substitution of the putative glycosylation site, asparagine 30 to leucine (pYA3710) produced a shorter unprocessed ∼17-kDa PsaA (Fig. 4b, lane 3). These results indicate that in the absence of either A31or S32, other amino acids flanking this SPase-I cleavage site can generate alternative cleavage sites, but deletion of both A31 and S32 produces a new cleavage site, which is processed more efficiently than the original.

, 2010), although physiological roles of SHMT in different organisms are not well characterized, except for the photorespiratory role in the mitochondria (Voll et al., click here 2005; Jamai et al., 2009). In cyanobacteria, only a single gene encoding SHMT could be found, suggesting that the cyanobacterial SHMT may have multiple functions in cells. SHMT in A. halophytica should play a unique role because its cells accumulate a large amount of glycine betaine under high salinity conditions.

Our present data clearly indicate that the expression of ApSHMT is up-regulated by NaCl (Fig. 1a), and in vitro experiments demonstrate that the overexpression of ApSHMT increased the accumulation levels of serine, choline, and glycine betaine and caused the increased salinity tolerance of E. coli. It should be mentioned that A. halophytica uses another pathway for glycine betaine synthesis than E. coli and plants. In this pathway, C1-units (i.e. methyl groups) are directly used to methylate the precursor glycine instead of synthesizing choline. Therefore, SHMT in A. halophytica AZD2014 research buy would play important role in glycine betaine synthesis. Regardless of these facts, the enhanced salt tolerance by SHMT was observed for E. coli only. Therefore,

this result cannot be generalized to other organisms, especially cyanobacteria that do not synthesize glycine betaine. Biochemical analysis of the recombinant ApSHMT showed that the apparent Km value of ApSHMT for dl-threo-3-phenylserine was 0.183 mM with Vmax 3522 nmol min−1 mg−1 (Fig. 2b and Table 1). This Km value is significantly small compared Nutlin-3 with those from other organisms such as Plasmodium vivax (8.6 mM) and sheep (84 mM; Ulevitch & Kallen, 1977; Sopitthummakhun et al., 2009). The apparent Km values of ApSHMT for l-serine and THF were 0.379 mM (Vmax, 1104 nmol

min−1 mg−1) and 0.243 mM (Vmax, 814 nmol min−1 mg−1), respectively, which were similar [0.1–1 mM range (for l-serine) and 0.02–0.8 mM range (for THF)] to those of other organisms such as P. vivax, E. coli, B. stearothermophilus, sheep, rabbit, and human (Ulevitch & Kallen, 1977; Schirch et al., 1985; Di Salvo et al., 1998; Jala et al., 2002; Sopitthummakhun et al., 2009). Higher affinity of ApSHMT to dl-threo-3-phenylserine would suggest some physiological function of ApSHMT, but that remains to be clarified. Figures 4a and b showed that expression of ApSHMT in E. coli resulted in the increase in amino acids glycine/serine. This is interesting because the amino acid l-serine is required for pharmaceutical purposes (Stolz et al., 2007). The total annual demand for l-serine is estimated to be 300 tons (Stolz et al., 2007). The production processes currently utilized still rely on the extraction of l-serine. The present data suggest the possibility to exploit ApSHMT for the production of serine.

Phagocytosis SB203580 order receptors such as CD14, Fcγ receptor II and the mannose receptor can recognize a wide range of bacteria, and ligand binding to this receptor can trigger cytokine production (Shibata et al., 1997; Yamamoto et al., 1997). As IL-12 is

produced by macrophages, it is not surprising that it is not blocked by TLR2 antibodies, but considerably affected by blocking phagocytosis. However, the fact that blocking phagocytosis blocked TNFα and IL-10 production is probably because TLR2 are recruited to phagosomes and are active after internalization. This has been observed in human DCs and macrophages (Underhill & Ozinsky, 2002). Intracellular nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors such as NOD1 and NOD2 recognize the muramyl dipeptide of gram-positive bacteria and may play a role as well. Zeuthen et al. (2008), using DC from NOD2 receptor and TLR2 knockout mice, showed that these receptors had different effects on the production of different cytokines in DCs stimulated with lactobacilli.

The differential cytokine production of different strains and preparations of lactobacilli may indicate that these bacteria/preparations may be suited for different therapeutic interventions. An ability to secrete IL-12 may be of benefit in allergic diseases, as IL-12 can reduce serum IgE levels in mice (Sashihara et al., 2006), while IL-10 can aid in tolerization of exogenous antigens. BI 2536 Thus, live or lyophilized L. bulgaricus that produces IL-12 and IL-10 or lyophilized L. casei would be considerably beneficial in this context while lyophilized L. rhamnosus with its ability to induce IL-10 secretion, but low induction of IL-12, may be beneficial in the reduction of inflammation. The ability of these strains, whether live or lyophilized, to induce TNFα may explain their antitumor properties. The order of efficacy of the three strains for cancer therapy would be live L. casei>L. rhamnosus>L. bulgaricus. This needs to be confirmed in animal

cancer models. This work was made possible by a grant from the Academic Research Fund of National University of Singapore. We would like to thank Dr Linda Wang for Mirabegron her advice on the TLR blocking experiments. “
“The appendices can be found on the BHIVA website (http://www.bhiva.org/TreatmentofHIV1_2012.aspx) Appendix 1 Summary modified GRADE system Appendix 2 Literature search A2.1 Questions and PICO criteria A2.2 Search protocols Appendix 3 GRADE tables A3.1 Choice of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor backbone A3.2 Choice of third agent A3.3 Protease inhibitor monotherapy “
“There are several reported cases of vertically infected children presenting with advanced HIV infection in the UK. The children of women with HIV infection are at increased risk of being infected. There are few data available on the number of such children that are yet to be tested for HIV.

Such hypotheses are also quite difficult to reject. Rather, the absence of behavioral-cognitive alternatives, combined with high levels of motivation to stay on task and not engage in task-unrelated behavior keeps ‘opportunity costs’ relatively low (Kurzban et al., 2013). As attentional effort and the associated sensation of fatigue and boredom result from monitoring and accruing opportunity costs, a motivated subject routinely performing a single task, with no alternative

action in sight, accrues little to no such costs and thus performance will not degrade. We repeatedly observed CH5424802 cell line relatively stable levels of cholinergic neuromodulatory activity over 40–60 min of SAT performance (Arnold et al., 2002; St Peters et al., 2011). As an alternative to hypothesising that these levels indicate the stable and limited demands on top-down

control of attention in subjects performing the standard SAT, these stable levels of cholinergic neuromodulation may index the output of estimating the utility of the current over alternative actions, in short, the low opportunity costs that are accrued by subjects having access only to the regular SAT. Because opportunity costs are already low in the absence of alternative tasks, we now understand why lowering R428 cost the demands on performance (animals had access to only one response lever) failed to alter levels of cholinergic neuromodulation (Himmelheber et al., 2001). In contrast, staying on task in the presence of a distractor Bumetanide and regaining high performance levels thereafter requires activation of diverse neuronal mechanisms to enhance the processing of cues and filter distractors and to monitor prediction errors (see Sarter et al., 2006). Even in the absence of an alternative task, distractors therefore increase the costs for

staying on task and the relatively utility of discontinuing performance. The presentation of distractors may also trigger the actual monitoring of these relative utilities. It is in such situations that we observed highest levels of cholinergic neuromodulation. Moreover, and importantly, higher cholinergic levels were correlated with better (residual) performance (St Peters et al., 2011). Thus, we hypothesise that higher levels of cholinergic neuromodulation shift the cost/benefit calculation for staying on task, relative to the utility for switching to an alternative task or, in our experimental settings, over discontinuation of performance. Higher levels of cholinergic neuromodulation reduce opportunity costs and perhaps also the subjective and aversive experience of computing these costs (mental effort), thereby decreasing the likelihood for discontinuing performance or, if available, switching to alternative action. As elevated levels of cholinergic neuromodulation are recruited in part via mesolimbic–basal forebrain interactions (St Peters et al., 2011; see also Neigh et al., 2004; Zmarowksi et al.

Metal ions can bind and

oxidize Cys residues and induce thiol-specific oxidative stress. The Cys-X-X-Cys motif is essential for catalysis of redox reactions (Chivers et al., 1997; Quan et al., 2007). In B. subtilis, the expression of ctsR regulon is induced via redox-active cysteines, which are oxidized by disulfide stress (Leichert et al., 2003; Elsholz et al., 2011). Also, a HXXXCXXC motif in the ZAS protein from Streptomyces coelicolor has been identified as a redox-sensing molecule selleck products (Zdanowski et al., 2006). Recent studies have shown that CtsR is deactivated during oxidative stress by a thiol-dependent regulatory pathway, and the regulatory nanoswitch of McsA is located in the second zinc finger of McsA (Elsholz et al., 2010, 2011). When the thiols of McsA become oxidized, the strong interaction between McsA and McsB is interrupted and free McsB is no longer inhibited

by McsA, resulting in the deactivation of CtsR (Elsholz et al., 2011). Therefore, in response to heavy metal stress, metal cations bind directly to the Cys residues of the CXXC motif and activate the ctsR regulon through this pathway. The Cys residues in the CXXC motifs could have an important role in the metal-induced signaling system and be involved in the intracellular stress response mechanism under physiological and pathological conditions. Previous studies have shown that the CXXC motif in the Rsm and CnfU proteins are involved in the interaction Selumetinib between the two molecules (Gaskell et al., 2007; Yabe et al., 2008). In this study, the bacterial hybrid system showed that McsA can interact with CtsR and McsB molecules and the CXXC motif is important in the binding. These data are consistent with Mephenoxalone previous studies by Kruger et al. 2001, showing that CtsR of B. subtilis can bind specifically to McsA. In B. subtilis, McsA forms a ternary complex with McsB and ClpC. In response to stress, ClpC releases from the complex, resulting in the dissociation of CtsR from its target promoters. Then,

CtsR binds to the McsA and McsB complex and mediates target gene expression (Frees et al., 2007). In this study, it has been shown that the CXXC motif in McsA protein plays a central role in binding to various types of heavy metals, and it mediates interactions between protein molecules. The metal–ion interaction may oxidize redox-active cysteines in the CXXC motif and play an important role in the metal-induced signaling system. The implication of this study is that McsA may function as an important and central molecule for oxidative tolerance in various types of stress including that of heavy metals. We thank Dr Bart Devreese for providing the pB2HΔα and pB2HΔw plasmids. This work has been supported by a grant from the Thailand Research Fund and Office of the Higher Education Commission (MRG5280188) to S.S. and by a grant R15AI079635-01 from the National Institute of Health to R.K.J.

She had no significant past medical history and no known allergies. She had not previously been vaccinated against JE but was felt to be at significant risk. She received 3 × 1 mL subcutaneous doses of JE-MB (BIKEN) vaccine on days 0, 7, and 28, accompanied by 3 × 1 mL intradermal doses of human diploid cell rabies vaccine. Following the third dose, she developed an urticarial rash all over her body and experienced mild respiratory disturbance. She was treated with intramuscular antihistamine, the symptoms resolved, and she did not require

admission to hospital. Three years later MB was returning to rural India as a tourist. Serology revealed no IgG antibodies to JE and after discussion of the likely risks with a vaccine that was unlikely to constitute a similar risk she elected to be revaccinated PD-0332991 ic50 with JE-VC (IXIARO) vaccine. She suffered no immediate reaction and was discharged home after 2 hours observation in our outpatient AZD5363 in vitro department. Three days later, she noted an itchy, papular rash at her hairline and on her inner wrists, which, the next day, spread to her scalp and upper body. This remained pruritic and appeared urticarial. She took 10 mg of cetirizine, 8 mg of chlorphenamine, and after 5 days from onset her symptoms had resolved. There was no associated respiratory distress. Three months later, serology revealed IgG to JE. Adverse events such as rash and urticaria

are recognized complications of JE-MB vaccination, and have been noted to occur as many as 17 days following vaccination and in as many as 5% of vacinees.[4] Similarly, adverse reactions to JE-VC may occur up to 8 days following vaccination.[8] In the safety studies for JE-VC, one case of generalized urticaria was noted 8 days following vaccination, and treated with cetirizine hydrochloride with symptom resolution after 3 days,[9] a similar event to that occurring in our patient. Adverse

reactions following a prior dose of JE-MB manifesting as generalized urticaria and angioedema are considered contraindications to further vaccination.[4] Those with previous urticarial reactions following hymenoptera envenomation, drugs, or other provocations were at greater risk of reaction to JE-MB.[4] The JE-VC vaccine does not contain the stabilizers and excipients of the JE-MB vaccine and we considered it a Ribonuclease T1 safe option for boosting immunity in this patient. JE-VC contains protamine sulphate, associated with hypersensitivity reactions, but this is not seen in JE-MB.[2] Compared to a vaccine excipient placebo, JE-VC was seen to have a comparable proportion and severity of adverse reactions, and compared to JE-MB, JE-VC recipients had significantly fewer local reactions.[7-9] Furthermore, no hypersensitivity reactions featuring angioedema have been reported in JE-VC recipients. When compared to JE-MB, JE-VC had a reported hypersensitivity rate of 3.6/100,000 doses compared to 8.4.

“
“Phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA support close relationships between the Gammaproteobacteria Sodalis glossinidius, a tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae) symbiont, and bacteria infecting diverse insect orders. To further examine the evolutionary relationships of these Sodalis-like symbionts, phylogenetic trees were constructed for a subset of putative surface-encoding genes (i.e. ompA, spr, slyB, rcsF, ycfM, and ompC). The ompA and ompC loci were used toward examining the intra- and interspecific diversity of Sodalis within

tsetse, respectively. Intraspecific analyses of ompA support elevated nonsynonymous (dN) polymorphism with an excess of singletons, indicating diversifying selection, specifically within the tsetse Glossina morsitans. Additionally, interspecific ompC comparisons between Sodalis and Escherichia coli demonstrate deviation from neutrality,

with higher fixed dN observed at sites associated with extracellular loops. Surface-encoding GSK-3 inhibition genes varied in their phylogenetic resolution of Sodalis and related bacteria, suggesting conserved vs. host-specific roles. Moreover, Sodalis and its close relatives exhibit genetic divergence at Cabozantinib mw the rcsF, ompA, and ompC loci, indicative of initial molecular divergence. The application of outer membrane genes as markers for further delineating the systematics of recently diverged bacteria is discussed. These results increase Bacterial neuraminidase our understanding of insect symbiont evolution, while also identifying early genome alterations occurring upon integration of microorganisms with eukaryotic hosts. Symbiosis enables the utilization of environments that would otherwise be rendered inhospitable and as such, is recognized as an important source of biological innovations particularly in regards to the radiation of the Class Insecta (Blochmann, 1887; Buchner, 1965). The evolutionary trajectory of symbiosis towards

obligate mutualism may develop through a parasitism to mutualism continuum through processes such as the attenuation of host fitness penalties (Jeon, 1972) and the conversion of horizontal transmission to a purely vertical mode (Ewald, 1987). Such a route is exemplified by ancient endocellular symbionts of various insect hosts, such as Buchnera aphidicola in aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae), which are thought to have evolved from less specialized but more prevalent microbial relations such as those involving general insect pathogens (Dale et al., 2001; Hosokawa et al., 2010). The gamma-proteobacterium, Sodalis glossinidius, is the secondary symbiont of the tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidae). Tsetse flies have medical significance as obligate vectors of the parasitic Trypanosoma brucei ssp., the etiological agents of African trypanosomiasis. In contrast to the primary symbiont Wigglesworthia glossinidia, which has a strict localization to the tsetse bacteriome and an extensive coevolutionary history with its host (Chen et al.