In humans high densities of colonization is associated with increase dissemination [17]. Thus, consequences of such variations in food chain animals should be investigated in further details. When looking at the distribution of enzymes that cause the ESBL phenotypes, striking differences are observed depending on the origin of the strains (animal or humans, or between animal species) [18]. Some, such as CTX-M1 are however found across all species, Bortezomib manufacturer suggesting

that some transmission does indeed occur. Differences observed between species in the distribution of ESBL enzymes are not greater than those observed between fecal and blood isolates in humans [19]. Plots of the phylogenetic relationships between ESBL E. coli from chicken, human feces and human blood show no clear differential patterns suggesting that transfer does indeed occur with a significant rate. High resolution power genetic tools with increased resolution power are highly conclusive that food chain animals Regorafenib in vivo can be the source of EBSL in humans but cannot estimate the precise rate of transfer [20]. This is currently addressed for instance by the EvoTar 7th European Union Research program (http://www.evotar.eu) which characterizes antibiotic resistance genes from the human microbiome and elucidates its interactions with environmental, animal and food reservoirs

of resistance. Whether organic products are less likely than conventional ones to carry resistant bacteria is a frequently asked by consumers. In France, there were no significant differences in rates Methocarbamol and densities of colonization by resistant bacteria between organic and conventional fruits and vegetables eaten

raw [3]. This however is not be the same for meat, ESBL contamination appearing significantly less frequent and less dense in organic than in conventional retail chicken meat [21]. When resistant bacteria are widespread in food animals, it is very likely that soil and waterways contaminated with fecal material and effluent from farm animals will carry resistant bacteria. These can then go onto colonize fruits and vegetables, even if raised organically. Certainly more studies are needed in the field. It is obvious that food chain animals are a significant reservoir of resistance for human pathogens. Although the magnitude of this source in comparison of the direct selection of resistance due to antibiotic use in humans remains unknown and will vary for different groups of bacteria, this obvious important factor certainly needs to be taken into account at a time where no new antibiotic are available, which forces to consider those on the market as a “limited resource” to be preserve for infected patients who need it. This is in this context that has been launched in December 2008 the WHO-AGISAR (World Health Organization Advisory Group on Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance) initiative.