133 While the disease-causing mechanism behind apo E remains controversial, most studies indicate that mutations in the genes APP, prcscnilin 1 (PS1), and presenilin 2 (PS2) alter the metabolism of APP so as to favor production of a long form of Aβ (Aβ 1-42) (see, for

example, reference 134). Table I. Genes causing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Neurotransmitter changes in Alzheimer’s disease The majority of biochemical studies of AD have relied on information derived from postmortem brain, which typically represents the late stage of the disease (8-10 years after onset, of symptoms). In these studies, there is considerable evidence for multiple Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neurotransmitter Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical abnormalities affecting many brain regions. However, investigations of biopsy tissue taken from AD patients 3 to 5 years (on average) after the onset, of symptoms indicate that a selective neurotransmitter pathology occurs early in the course of the disease.132 Acetylcholine. Changes affecting many aspects of the cholinergic system in patients with AD have been reported since the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical initial discovery of deficits in ChAT activity in postmortem brains.135-137 In biopsy samples from AD patients, presynaptic markers of the cholinergic system were also uniformly reduced.132

Thus, ChAT activity, choline uptake, and acetylcholine synthesis are all reduced to between 30% and 60% of control values. The clinical correlate of this cholinergic deficit, in AD was until selleckchem recently considered to be cognitive dysfunction. Such a conclusion Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was supported by clinicopathological studies in AD and parallel experiments in nonhuman primates or rodents, which demonstrated disruptive effects of basal forebrain cholinergic lesions on cognitive functions. Furthermore, cholinergic deficits in AD occur to the greatest extent in cortical areas primarily concerned with memory and cognition: the hippocampus, adjacent temporal

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical lobe regions, and selected frontal areas. Such studies led to the “cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction.”138 On the basis of the above evidence, neocortical cholinergic innervation appears to be lost at an early stage of the disease and this is supported by a recent study where the cholinergic MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit deficit (reduced ChAT activity) has been related to Braak staging.131 Braak stages I and II are considered to represent the earliest, presentation of AD with neurofibrillary tangles in entorhinal cortex, and a 20% to 30% loss in ChAT activity was reported in brains from patients at, these stages of AD.139 However, another study using the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) scale suggests that the greatest reduction in markers of the cholinergic system occurs between moderate (CDR 2.0) and severe (CDR 5.