We found that the two salamanders show dissimilar species–habitat relationships. The slope of the site positively affected the site-occupancy probability of S. salamandra, while none of the habitat characteristics explained the occupancy probability of S. atra. The local presence http://www.selleckchem.com/products/bay-57-1293.html of one species

had no effect on the occupancy probability of the other, suggesting that there is no effect of competition on local occurrence or that competition does not lead to spatial segregation. To fully understand the mechanisms that determine the parapatric range margins between the salamander species and to unravel the role of interspecific interactions, it is necessary to further study species’ functional traits. The mechanisms that generate the margins of species distributions are of central interest in ecology, evolution and biogeography (Gaston, 2003; Holt & Keitt, 2005; Geber, 2011). Parapatry refers to a pattern in which find more the stable ranges of two species meet and form range margins with narrow contact zones where the species locally co-occur (Bull, 1991). Bridle & Vines (2007) reviewed the theory for the formation of range margins in parapatric species and found that both abiotic and biotic factors may cause parapatric range limits. This prediction was confirmed by subsequent empirical studies (Arntzen & Espregueira Themudo, 2008; Cunningham,

Rissler & Apodaca, 2009; Khimoun et al., 2013). Interestingly, Bridle & Vines (2007) suggested that parapatric range margins were more likely to be predicted by models that included competition than by models that included only environmental gradients. Parapatry has been observed in terrestrial salamanders where often an interplay of species-specific habitat preferences and interspecific competition determine the range limits (Hairston, 1951; Jaeger, 1970; Cimmaruta et al., 1999; Arif, Adams & Wicknick, 2007; Cunningham et al., 2009;

Gifford & Kozak, 2012). Here, we study the ecology of the medchemexpress narrow contact zones of two parapatric European land salamanders, the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) and the alpine salamander (Salamandra atra). The two species have similar terrestrial habitat requirements but differ in the mode of reproduction. Salamandra salamandra has an aquatic larval stage in most of its geographic range while S. atra is viviparous (see below). Yet, the determinants of syntopy and allotopy within contact zones remain unknown (Klewen, 1991; Guex & Grossenbacher, 2004; Thiesmeier & Grossenbacher, 2004). A recent study on the ecology of the parapatric range margins of these salamanders in the Swiss Alps suggested that climatic gradients can partially explain the sharp range margins but also that interspecific competition might play a role (Werner et al., in press). There is, however, no direct evidence for competition between S. atra and S. salamandra yet.