). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM, unless otherwise indicated. The p values for open-field experiments were calculated using the two tailed unpaired Students t test. Latencies were calculated for every cell with a PI greater than 0.011, the upper median confidence interval PI of our control experiments (n = 13 retinas; n = 409 cells). For each cell, firing rate was averaged over the first two light periods (dark and 380 nm light), with a 10 ms bin size. Basal firing rate was calculated from the

upper median confidence interval in 500 nm light. Response latency was then calculated as the time difference between the onset of 380 nm light and the first bin with a firing rate greater than the cell’s basal activity. The median response latency was 45 ms (n = 10 retinas; n = 368 cells). All Anti-cancer Compound Library in vitro statistics were performed with MATLAB (Mathworks) algorithms. Distributions were Roxadustat in vitro first tested for normality

using the Shapiro-Wilk test. For non-normal distributions, the Wilcoxon rank sum test was used for pairwise comparisons. The 95% confidence intervals for medians were generated by resampling the original distributions and applying the bias-corrected percentile method (Efron and Tibshirani, 1986). Results with p < 0.05 were considered significant. For all box plots, box limits represent the 25th and 75th percentile, respectively. The red line represents the median and whiskers denote 1.5 times the interquartile range from the limits of the box. Outliers are marked by red + signs. We thank A. Anishchenko and J. Elstrott for helpful comments tuclazepam and discussions; Trevor Lee, Andrew Noblet, R. Montpetit, T. Lamprecht, and X. Qiu for technical

and experimental assistance; and J. Flannery and K. Greenberg for valuable suggestions. This work was supported by the National Eye Institute (NEI), which provided research Grant EY018957 to R.H.K., Core Grant P30 EY003176 to R.H.K., and Core Grant P30 EY001730 to R.V.G. This work was also supported by Beckman Foundation for Macular Research (R.H.K.) and a Research to Prevent Blindness award to Y.S. and R.V.G. and an Ezell Fellowship to A.P. The NEI also funded the Nanomedicine Development Center (PN2 EY018241), which supported this interdisciplinary project. R.H.K. and D.T. are SAB members and consultants of Photoswitch Bioscience, Inc., which is developing commercial uses for chemical photoswitches. A.P., J.L., I.T., J.N., Y.S., T.H., I.D.K., and K.B. conducted the in vitro and in vivo experiments. D.T. designed and synthesized chemical reagents. R.H.K. and R.V.G. coordinated the research and wrote the manuscript. R.H.K. initiated the research and supervised the program. “
“Hearing loss is one of the most common human sensory deficits, with congenital hearing loss occurring in approximately 1.5 in 1,000 children (Smith et al., 2005). Of these, about half are attributed to a genetic basis (Di Domenico et al., 2011).