In order to determine if the profile of free amines

in the embryo was different from the endosperm, the two parts were separated and analyzed individually. Canned corn was used for this purpose. Higher concentrations of spermine were detected in the embryo (Table 3), whereas the concentrations of putrescine and spermidine were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Therefore, the embryo of the corn had a higher concentration of spermine compared to the endosperm. For dietary purposes, when a higher concentration of spermine is desired, the embryo of the corn could be used. On the contrary, when reduced levels of spermine are needed, the endosperm could be used. Studies are needed to optimise a process for embryo removal from the corn. Corn was observed to be a significant source of polyamines. Stem Cells inhibitor Fresh sweet corn contained mainly spermidine followed by putrescine. Spermine, cadaverine, phenylethylamine, histamine and agmatine were also present at lower levels. buy IPI-145 The profile and levels of amines differed significantly in canned and dried corn compared to fresh corn. Putrescine was the prevalent amine in canned corn whereas spermine was prevalent in dried

corn. During germination of corn for 5 days, there was a significant increase on the levels of spermidine, spermine and putrescine. The embryo of the corn contained higher spermine levels compared to the endosperm. Based on these results, corn can be a significant source of polyamines in the diet. The different types of corn products available in the market could be used to attend different dietary and nutritional needs.

The authors acknowledge Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais – FAPEMIG and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico Adenosine e Tecnológico – CNPq for the financial support. They also thank the Seed Producers Association of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil for supplying the dried and germinated corn seeds. “
“Mushrooms are highly appreciated for their flavour and have been well studied due to their nutritional and medicinal proprieties. Pleurotus mushrooms have high nutritional value and can be a good source of protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, calcium and iron ( Schmidt, Wechsler, Nascimento, & Junior, 2003). Furthermore, these mushrooms have important medicinal properties, such as anti-tumour and immunostimulatory activity, as observed in rats ( Sarangi, Ghosh, Bhutia, Mallick, & Maiti, 2006). The products derived from Pleurotus mycelia can promote biological responses during cancer treatment in humans and have been used as antitumourogenic drugs ( Sarangi et al., 2006). Pleurotus mushrooms have been grown in agro-industrial residues, such as banana waste ( Reddy, Babu, Komaraiah, Roy, & Kothari, 2003), corn, bean and coffee ( Dias, Koshikumo, Schwan, & Silva, 2003), and crop waste, such as soybean straw, cotton stalks, pigeon pea stalks and sugar cane remnants ( Syed, Kadam, Mane, Patil, & Baig, 2009).

Total average GSL concentration ranged from 3.1 mg g−1 DW (Buzz) to 11.6 mg g−1 DW (SR10). Both of these accessions are E.sativa, indicating the large degree of variability between accessions of this species, both commercial and germplasm. The lowest average accumulation for Diplotaxis was Wild Tirizia with 4.4 mg g−1 DW and the highest was 10.4 mg g−1 DW, (Wild Grazia). For glucosativin both the monomeric and the dimeric

forms were identified and quantified separately and concentrations of both forms varied significantly between MAPK inhibitor accessions. On average 91.3% of the total GSL concentration was made up of glucosativin/DMB. This is much higher than the proportions presented in previous studies where values of around 60% have been generally given (Pasini, Verardo, Caboni, & D’Antuono, 2012). Other GSL compounds such as glucoraphanin and glucoerucin were not detected in all accessions. Again, previous studies have highlighted the prevalence of these compounds, but we found them to be relatively minor. Concentrations ranged from nil to 0.9 mg g−1 DW (Wild Grazia)

buy AZD9291 for glucoraphanin and nil to 1.6 mg g−1 DW (SR16) for glucoerucin. Several other GSLs were quantified, and in some cases these were as high as the more generally accepted ‘major’ GSLs of rocket in concentration. The other compounds were: 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucotropaeolin, glucolepiidin, glucoiberverin, glucoalyssin, glucoraphenin, diglucothiobeinin and glucoibarin. None of these GSLs discriminated between species. In general, the concentrations detected

were similar to those found in other studies. In some of these, plants were grown in field conditions and therefore subject to many different environmental stresses and inconsistencies. It is widely known that both GSLs and flavonols increase in concentration as Decitabine datasheet plants become stressed (Rohr, Ulrichs, Mucha-Pelzer, & Mewis, 2006). With this in mind it is somewhat unusual that the concentrations reported here were not lower, as stress was minimal in comparison to field conditions. Studies conducted in outdoor conditions are not directly comparable for this reason. Field conditions and climate vary greatly between growing regions and GSL proportions may change due to these variables. Our study represents GSL and flavonol accumulation in rocket varieties and species under conditions that can be easily replicated using controlled environment apparatus. This allows the basic genetic differences in GSL profile to be observed, rather than the differences between how accessions respond to their normal, field-based growing environment. A trial of five gene bank accessions used in this study have been grown under field conditions and will be analysed using identical LC/MS methods to determine the effects the outdoor environment has on GSL and flavonol profiles. Table 3 summarizes the range of concentrations of some GSLs previously reported in comparison with our own data.

The gas-line and lead were connected to the “Y” connector of the PIL, which was tunneled under the rectus sheath to an exit site located on the abdomen. A driver was attached to the patient connector

and a programmer was used to adjust cuff inflation volume and timing of inflation and deflation in relation to the cardiac cycle to optimize the counterpulsation effect (Figure 1B). Balloon inflation was timed via the programmer to begin right after the dicrotic notch, while deflation started during the pre-ejection phase and continued during the ejection phase of systole in such a way that 70 ± 10% of the balloon ATM signaling pathway was deflated at the start of ejection. Patients were discharged from the hospital once heart failure medications were re-established and the patients were ambulatory and able to demonstrate the ability to care for the exit site and manage the driver. Patients were scheduled to be seen by the heart failure clinician-investigator and study coordinator at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months post-implant. During the primary period of follow-up (the first 6 MAPK inhibitor months), the C-Pulse System was intended to be used at least 20 h per day.

The non–blood contacting feature of the C-Pulse System allows the device to be intermittently turned off as tolerated. This enables the patient to be “untethered” from the device, allowing freedom for personal hygiene and convenience. Follow-up visits included a repeat of baseline tests: physical examination, medication summary, and assessment of NYHA functional class, QoL as measured by the Minnesota Living with Heart Failure questionnaire and the Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire, 6MWD, and pVO2 (repeated at 6 months only). Safety data, including adverse events, was collected continuously. The CT was repeated at 6

months only. Data were collected via electronic data capture screens referred to as e-case report forms and independently monitored. Core laboratories were used to provide data on CT scans (Cardiovascular Core Labs, Washington, DC), echocardiograms (Cardiovascular Core Labs, Washington, DC), and pVO2 testing (Henry SDHB Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan). Functional status assessments and QoL testing (NYHA functional classification and QoL scoring, respectively) were conducted using standardized and validated approaches and questionnaires 1 and 17. Adverse events were recorded by the clinical sites and adjudicated by an independent Clinical Events Committee (see the Online Appendix). Adverse event definitions were based on Version 2.2 adverse event definitions for the Intermacs registry 2 and 18. This feasibility study was designed to assess the safety and potential benefit of the C-Pulse System in patients with NYHA functional class III-ambulatory functional class IV heart failure. As with most Investigational Device Exemption feasibility studies, the primary focus of the U.S.

A heuristic model, the “Shared Circuits Model” was introduced (Hurley, 2008), which suggested the existence of an intermediate system mediating a cognitive elaboration between incoming signals and intentional actions. Mirroring and the simulation of mirroring is one part of this artefactual dynamic system. Layered between the outer world and consciousness, this system enables human cognitive capacities for imitation, deliberation, mind reading, motor control and other functions via sensorimotor feedback. Typical aspects of mind reading, such as the attribution of false beliefs to others, were demonstrated with 15-month-old infants (Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005). According

to Gallese (Gallese, 2007) these results suggest that social skills dependent on these brain mechanisms develop very early, www.selleckchem.com/products/i-bet-762.html well before the development of language. There is a ‘structuring’ computational circuit within the premotor system that can operate in two ways. In the first, the circuit can organise action execution and/or action perception and imagination via neural connections to motor effectors and/or to other sensory cortical areas. In the second, the same system applies both to master language organisation and to yield ‘abstract inferences’. According to this hypothesis Kinase Inhibitor Library high throughput the same circuitry that controls how to

move our body, enables the understanding of the action of others and can, in principle, also structure language and abstract thought. In this regard, it would be interesting to know if individuals are fully aware when “inner speech” is activated, in accordance with Baars (1998). This mechanism allows an individual to

communicate and learn in order to adapt his actions to the environment for a homeostatic purpose (Maturana & Varela, 1980). On performing an action, we may not be aware of it but we can subjectively experience it by interrupting it and by putting ourselves in a meditative mood (Bignetti, 2004). The same occurs with the “inner speech” echo that ID-8 somehow evokes an interior perception described by others (Edelman & Tononi, 2000), which probably corresponds to: “being conscious of being conscious”. As soon as feedback sensory stimuli of the ongoing action are conveyed to the brain, the action’s course becomes explicit to CM in a step-by-step manner (see the section above: “Conscious mind (CM) and unconscious mind (UM)” and Dietrich, 2003). Lagging behind UM, CM cannot see earlier UM’s work; thus the agent believes it has freely decided the action. This illusion triggers a functionally useful sense of responsibility (SoR) in CM which exerts a positive effect on cognition (points 4 and 5), despite the fact it is based on an unavoidable psychological error! Other aspects of human behaviour have also been attributed to intrinsic and unavoidable psychological errors.

This was in contrast to studies using a low number of microsatellite markers with a high frequency of null alleles (Buiteveld et al., 2007 and Paffetti et al., 2012), but in line with the results obtained by Rajendra et al. (2014).The low but

significant value of the inbreeding coefficient in the sapling population of the old growth stand was explained by the presence of null alleles at locus Fs3. Both adult populations had genetically distinctive structures that were transferred to the offspring population. However, in the managed population six individuals from regeneration centre I differed in their genetic structure from the rest of the saplings and adults. A private allele at locus Fs5, possibly originating from the same unsampled mother tree (results not shown) found in five of this individuals, can partly explain their distinct genetic structure. selleck products As the centre was formed by natural regeneration, two scenarios may explain the observed state. Firstly, the private allele could have originated PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor from an unsampled adult tree in the vicinity of the regeneration centre. This is a very likely scenario as mean seed dispersal distance is approximately 10 m for beech (Oddou-Muratorio et al., 2010) and spatial genetic structure is reported to extend mainly up to 10 or 20, rarely to 40 m in beech

(Piotti et al., 2013 and Rajendra et al., 2014). The distance from the midpoint of regeneration centre I, where this six individual were sampled, to the closest sampled adult tree was 7 m; all other sampled trees were at least 30 m

from the regeneration centre. Secondly, the distinct genetic structure may have been caused by pollen immigration. This regeneration centre is situated by a forest road, making long distance pollen immigration a convenient way to introduce new alleles. Beech has a high potential for Dehydratase pollen dispersal with mean within population pollen dispersal distances between 40 and 180 m (Oddou-Muratorio et al., 2010, Oddou-Muratorio et al., 2011 and Piotti et al., 2012). In addition, high rates (approximately 75%) of pollen immigration into small to medium size plots were reported (Piotti et al., 2012). Additionally, saplings with the distinct structure could have originated from another mast year than the rest of the saplings; some saplings from this regeneration centre were by 0.5 m taller and up to 2 cm thicker than the rest of the saplings at Osankarica research site. Unfortunately, height and diameter measurements of saplings were not directly linked to the sampled individuals but rather represent averages for the regeneration centres and age of sampled seedlings was not recorded during sampling. As ISS is a long term oriented sylvicultural system with gradual opening of the canopy, seeds from more than one mast year coming from many parent trees will contribute to the new generation – the formation of the new stand.

Ginsenoside-Rh2 treatment modulates the protein level of p21 and cyclin D, which results in a marked reduction in proliferation on MCF-7 human breast cancer cells [16]. Ginsenoside-Rh2 also induces apoptosis through the activation of p53 and the increase of the proapoptotic regulator, Bax, in colorectal cancer cells [37]. In addition, Ginsenoside-Rh2 markedly inhibits the viability of breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) with G1 phase cell cycle arrest, which is caused by p15 Ink4B and p27 Kip1-dependent inhibition of

cyclin-dependent kinases [10]. Although many Palbociclib in vivo studies describing the anticancer effect of ginsenoside-Rh2 have been conducted, much of its mechanism relating to anticancer activities remains unclear. AMPK is a pleiotropic kinase that see more signals for both survival and apoptosis of cells. It plays a key role as a regulator of cellular energy homeostasis [39]. The kinase is activated in response to ATP depletions, such as those of glucose starvation, hypoxia, ischemia, and heat shock. Moreover, a proapoptotic function of AMPK was also reported, where the connection of AMPK with several tumor suppressors suggests that AMPK is a mediator of apoptosis. The LKB1 tumor suppressor that mutated in Peutz–Jeghers syndrome directly phosphorylates and activates AMPK [40] and [41]. The TSC2 tumor suppressor is directly phosphorylated by AMPK, and the AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of

TSC2 has an important role in cell survival [42] and [43]. The present study focuses on identifying the mechanism that underlies the anticancer activity of ginsenoside-Rh2. In this study, we show that in HepG2 cells treated with ginsenoside-Rh2, AMPK activity is increased in a time- and dose-dependent manner (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). To confirm the role of AMPK in ginsenoside-Rh2-induced apoptosis, HepG2 cells were treated with ginsenoside-Rh2,

and were then assessed for the degree of apoptosis according to the degree of variation in AMPK activity. In this study, we have shown that AMPK activity is caused by ginsenoside-Rh2-mediated ROS generation (Fig. 5), and that it contributes to cancer cell growth and survival under treatment with ginsenoside-Rh2 Abiraterone mouse (Fig. 4). These observations indicate that AMPK can function as an antiapoptotic molecule. It is well documented that MAPK pathways modulate gene expression, mitosis, proliferation, metabolism, and apoptosis. Previous studies have demonstrated that MAPK signaling is involved in ginsenoside-mediated anticarcinogenesis. Ginsenoside Rg3 and Rh2 inhibit the proliferation of prostate cancer cells by modulating MAPK [17]. Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits histamine release and IL-4 production induced by substance P, a neurotransmitter, via the ERK pathway [44]. A ginseng saponin metabolite, compound K, suppresses phorbol ester-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression through the inhibition of MAPK signaling in human astroglioma cells [45].

005 mg kg iv), and ventilated with a constant flow ventilator (Samay VR15; Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo, Uruguay) with the following parameters: frequency of 100 breaths/min, tidal volume (VT) of 0.2 ml, and fraction of inspired oxygen of 0.21. The anterior chest wall was surgically removed and a positive end-expiratory pressure

of 2 cm H2O applied. A laparotomy was performed and heparin (1000 IU) was intravenously injected in the vena cava. The trachea was clamped at end-expiration, and the abdominal aorta and vena cava were sectioned, yielding a massive hemorrhage that quickly killed the animals. The right lung was then removed, fixed in 3% buffered formaldehyde and paraffin embedded. Four-μm-thick slices were cut and stained with hematoxylin-eosin. Lung morphometry analysis was performed with an integrating eyepiece with a coherent system consisting of a grid with 100 points and 50 lines (known length) coupled to Venetoclax datasheet a conventional light microscope (Olympus BX51, Olympus Latin America-Inc., Brazil). The volume fractions of the lung occupied by collapsed alveoli (alveoli with rough or plicate walls), normal pulmonary areas or hyperinflated structures (alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, or alveoli, all with maximal chord length in air >120 μm) were determined by the point-counting technique (Weibel, 1990) across 10 random, non-coincident microscopic fields. Briefly, points falling on collapsed, normal pulmonary areas

or hyperinflated structures were

counted and divided by the total number of points in each microscopic Bay 11-7085 field. Enlargement of air Selleckchem Galunisertib spaces was evaluated using mean linear intercept measurement (Lm) (Dunnill, 1964). The fraction of neutrophils and mononuclear cells was also evaluated. Collagen (Picrosirius-polarization method) and elastic fibers (Weigert’s resorcin fuchsin method with oxidation) (Fullmer et al., 1974) were quantified in alveolar septa and pulmonary vessel wall. Three slices of 2 mm × 2 mm × 2 mm were cut from three different segments of the left lung and fixed [2.5% glutaraldehyde and phosphate buffer 0.1 M (pH = 7.4)] for electron microscopy (JEOL 1010 Transmission Electron Microscope, Tokyo, Japan) analysis. For each lung electron microscopy image (20/animal), the following alterations were analyzed: (a) alveolar-capillary membrane damage, (b) type II pneumocyte lesion, (c) endothelial cell lesion, (d) neutrophil infiltration, (e) elastic fiber breakdown, (f) collagen fiber deposition, and (g) apoptotic cells (Abreu et al., 2011a). The pathologic findings were graded according to a 5-point semi-quantitative severity-based scoring system as: 0 = normal lung parenchyma, 1 = changes in 1–25%, 2 = changes in 26–50%, 3 = changes in 51–75%, and 4 = changes in 76–100% of examined tissue. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling staining was used to assay cellular apoptosis (Oliveira et al., 2009).

Notably, the DNA viruses strongly up-regulate glycolysis including kinases such as pyruvate kinase. It can be hypothesized that phosphorylation of CDV and other ANPs might be selectively activated in this productive or transformed environment compared to more quiescent normal cells. Accordingly, to explain the selectivity of CDV for HPV-positive cells,

Johnson and Gangemi (1999) claimed that CDV could be Duvelisib concentration differentially metabolized in HPV-positive cells and normal keratinocytes. Following 8 and 16 h incubation, CDV was found to predominantly accumulate in the form of CDVp-choline (considered the intracellular depot form of CDV) in human primary keratinocytes (PHKs) while in HPV16-transformed keratinocytes, CDVpp was the most abundant anabolic product with little CDVp-choline having formed. Recently, we reported that following 72 h incubation with CDV, CDVp-choline appeared to be the most abundant metabolite while the monophosphate form was the least abundant one in PHKs as well as in HPV-positive and HPV-negative tumor cells (De Schutter et al., 2013c). Importantly, no significant differences in the levels of the active metabolite CDVpp, CDVp-choline or CDV were observed between PHKs and HPV-positive tumor cells. However, lower CDVp levels were measured in PHKs compared to HPV-positive cells

following 72 h incubation. Notably, lower concentrations of CDV and of all metabolites were observed in the spontaneously transformed keratinocyte cell line HaCaT that lack HPV sequences, compared to either HPV-positive cells or PHKs, suggesting that

HaCaT cells have a different uptake and/or Celecoxib efflux of CDV, rather than differences in drug metabolism. To reveal C646 clinical trial the molecular mechanisms underlying the selectivity of CDV for tumor cells, in particular for HPV-positive carcinoma cells, our research team evaluated gene expression changes following CDV treatment of different cell types [including two HPV-positive cervical carcinoma cell lines (SiHa, HPV16+ and HeLa HPV18+), an HPV-immortalized keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT), and PHKs (De Schutter et al., 2013c). In addition, drug incorporation into genomic DNA was analysed in the four cell types. An exhaustive and thorough analysis of the microarray data highlighted distinct responses to CDV exposure in PHKs compared to HPV-positive cervical carcinoma cells, on the one hand, and to HPV-immortalized keratinocytes, on the other hand. Our data indicated that the selectivity of CDV for HPV-transformed cells is based on differences in response to DNA damage, replication rate and CDV incorporation into cellular DNA between immortalized cells and normal cells, rather than on a specific effect of CDV on expression of the viral oncoproteins (De Schutter et al., 2013c). Normal cells possess an arsenal of repair pathways and cell cycle checkpoints to detect and repair DNA damage unlike transformed cells that have a significantly reduced set of DNA repair pathways for survival (Fig. 12A).

OEP data acquisitions were performed while individuals were seated with their arms at their sides. Data were gathered on two separate occasions: first, during three minutes of normal breathing and then during the inspiratory

loaded breathing exercise with Threshold® ILB. Statistical analysis was performed by SPSS 18.0 software. The following tests and analyses were conducted: Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Levene tests to assess sample normality and analyze intergroup homogeneity; t-test for independent samples for intragroup comparison of the right and left sides of compartmental chest wall volumes and same side compartmental volumes during normal breathing and inspiratory muscle training; t-test for GW3965 dependent samples, for

intragroup comparisons of chest wall volumes of the same side during normal breathing and inspiratory muscle training; Pearson’s correlation analysis to evaluate the relationship between abdominal rib cage volume on the left side and predicted MIP, 6MWD, and EF. Data were described as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Confidence intervals and differences were regarded as significant at 95% and p < 0.05, respectively. The sample was calculated based on a pilot study for a power of 90% and α = 0.05. A 40% increase in abdominal thoracic volume (Vrc,a) on the left side was observed Nutlin-3a molecular weight for the control group compared to the group with heart failure. Clinical, demographic and medication characteristics are described in Table 1. Intergroup differences include lower EF (p < 0.01) and higher left ventricle systolic diameter (LVSD) and left ventricle diastolic diameter (LVDD) (both with p < 0.01)

for the CHF group compared with the control group. Controls were characterized by higher Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase FVC%pred and FEV1%pred than the CHF group (p = 0.03 and p = 0.01, respectively). The control group also showed greater FVC and FEV1 in absolute values (p = 0.01 for both comparisons). In relation to MIP, control subjects exhibited higher absolute and %predicted values (p < 0.01 for both comparisons) compared to the CHF group. Subject belonging to the control group covered an higher 6MWD than CHF (p < 0.01). Table 2 shows the comparison of regional chest wall volume distribution between normal breathing and ILB on the same side of the thoracoabdominal system for each of the groups, as well as a between-group analysis. When analyzing each group separately, a significant increase was observed for all thoracoabdominal compartments, on both sides during ILB for the two groups. CHF patients showed significantly lower Vrc,a variations (both sides) compared to the control group during ILB. Table 3 displays the comparison between right and left percentages of volume variations for each compartment of the chest wall during normal breathing and IMT for each group.

A result has been the lasting favor among western scientists for environmental determinants of habitats and societies. An example is the reliance on factors such as “climate forcing” for explaining habitat patterning in the savannas and tropical forests of South America (Prance, 1982, Haberle, 1997, Oliveira, 2002 and Whitmore and Prance, 1987), despite the evidence for human landscape HA-1077 nmr construction as well as inadvertent impacts, summarized in this article. Another example of this trend was the

environmental limitation theory of human societies, which arose from early theories of human evolution (Roosevelt, 1991a, Roosevelt, 2005, Roosevelt, 2010a and Roosevelt, 2010b). Despite recognition by most anthropologists and biologists of the errors of Social Darwinism, their disciplines did not fully escape its assumptions for research in the tropical forests. Leading American anthropologists who pioneered there in the 1950s and 1960s assumed that the human occupation was recent and Crizotinib solubility dmso slight and the cultures primitive, due to limitations on population and development imposed by the tropical forest (Evans and Meggers, 1960, Meggers, 1954, Meggers

and Evans, 1957 and Steward, 1959). Even researchers who criticized environmental limitation theory nonetheless defined a modal human adaptation: “the tropical forest culture” (Lathrap, 1970). To their credit, the anthropologists defended the integrity of the forest, arguing that, once breached, it would be gone forever (Meggers, 1971). However, despite the survival of tropical rainforests worldwide mainly where indigenous people were (Clay, 1988), forest conservation strategists sometimes focused more on the supposed harm of people’s slash-and-burn cultivation and hunting than on the large-scale corporatized foreign exploitation that US agencies were promoting (Dewar, 1995). Nature reserves have often sought to move people out rather than collaborate, though forests divested of their inhabitants can be vulnerable to intrusion. The archeologists were not dissuaded from their assumptions about environment and human development Grape seed extract by what they

found because they applied theories rather than tested them (e.g., Meggers and Evans, 1957, Roosevelt, 1980 and Roosevelt, 1995). Recognition in the 1970s and 1980s of the long, intense human occupation came from technical innovations in research on the one hand and the insights of ethnographers, ethnobotanists, and cultural geographers on the other. Archeological research revealed, not one, recent tropical forest culture, but a long sequence of different cultures and adaptations, some of unsuspected complexity and magnitude. Human cultural evolution, therefore, had been multi-linear and dynamic, not monolithic and static. Some of the ancient societies were quite unlike those of current forest peoples, contrary to the theories that ethnographic adaptations were ancient patterns.